Supliment Anuar 1/2025

Abstract. After the Dacian-Romans Wars, most of the territories conquered were transformed into Roman provinces. The locals who remained outside the borders developed their own culture, more or less influenced by the Roman one. In the territory of Muntenia in the 2nd-3rd centuries, the Chilia-Militari developed, a culture quite influenced by the Roman one. Part of its territory was for a time under Roman rule and always supervised by the Roman army. Numerous settlements have been discovered here, where a diverse range of materials have emerged, including ceramic objects. Among these are Roman imported objects. This provincial–romans imports are considered to be handicrafts that reaches outside the imperial provinces, through various means: trade, as spoils of war, subsidies, or even by chance. Some of them were later used as models for local imitations. Imported Roman provincial ceramics represent approximately 10-15% of the settlements’ ceramic inventory. These objects include amphorae, which are the most numerous, bowls, plates, platters, jugs, cups, glass cups, rushlight and fragments of terra sigillata. Roman imported objects have been discovered in settlements such as in Militari-Câmpul Boja, Mătăsaru, Udeni, Alexandria, Dulceanca, Scornicești (an ampohora used as a urn), and in the castles of the Limes Alutanus and Transalutanus. Many of these imports have analogues in neighboring Oltenia, where they came from south of the Danube. Chronology: end of 1st century-beginning of 2nd century and end of 2nd century–3^rd century p. Chr.
Keywords: Chilia-Militari culture; 2ⁿᵈ-3ʳᵈ century p.Chr.; Muntenia county; roman imports; amphorae; terra sigillata;

Abstract: The scope of this study is to present a detailed analysis of the decorations and motifs found on the Maroș culture vessels’ surface. The material studied was collected from the excavations directed by Dorin Popescu at „Pecica Șantul Mare” and „Livada lui Onea” (in Arad county) in 1942 and 1943. Maroș culture is a Bronze Age culture that spans the Early and the Middle Bronze Age. It covers a large area in South Hungary, North Serbia, and Western Romania.

Over time, various studies have been conducted on the Maroș culture pottery to establish its forms, fabrics, and decorative typologies. The pottery analysis was mainly focused on identifying different types of decorations and motifs applied to the vessels. We have separately analysed the fragments found at „Pecica Șantul Mare” and ”Livada lui Onea”. In both settlements, we have identified similar types of decor and motifs, especially impressions made by finger or nail, or incisions made with a sharp tool. Several variables have been used to understand the evolution of decorations and motifs in time and space. One of them is based on the ceramic sorting by diagnostic (rim, handle, base, decorated) and by non-diagnostic (body sherds). We encountered situations with decorations applied directly on the lip or handle and other situations where the decoration was not applied on the lip or the handle, but on another part of the vessel. We were also interested in identifying vessels with two, three, or more decors or motifs. The purpose of using this variable is to identify a possible relationship between the different types of decorations/motifs, or between the decoration and the shape of the vessel.
In general, for Maroș culture, we have three types of decorative treatment: incision, impression/channel, and applique. Other common decorations and motifs are: triangle, arc, dot, and chevron.
Keywords: Mureș culture; Pecica „Șanțul Mare”; pottery decorations and motifs;

Abstract: This work aims to review the tireless work of the historian and researcher Felix Bodog Milleker since he became custodian of the Vršac Museum. His studies have materialized in hundreds of specialized works, as well as repertoires of the Banat region. Starting from the descriptions in his works, but also his activity in the field, the present work tries to put together, piece by piece, his contribution to the enrichment of the museum collection in Vârșeț/ Vršac until 1918.
Keywords: Felix Milleker; museum; archaeological collections; Banat, prehistory;

Abstract: This article explores the evolution of archaeological illustration from its origins in early antiquarian practice, to its recognition as an essential tool of archaeological methodology.
Initially seen as a complementary aid by collectors and scholars alike, illustration evolved from aesthetically driven drawings to standardized visual documentation that contributed to artifact classification, typological classification, and analytical interpretation.
Throughout its transformation, key figures played pivotal roles in shaping the conventions and rules of archaeological drawing, gradually transforming it into a visual language of scientific research. Their contributions played an important part in refining illustration into a structured and analytical language.
As archaeology became increasingly formalized, illustration adapted to its new demands, shifting from expressive and artistic depictions to schematic drawings based on accuracy.
Keywords: archaeological illustration; scientific illustration; antiquarianism; visual representation; cultural heritage; visual archives;

Abstract: The study examines the relationships of subordination between the Roman Church and the medieval Christian kingdoms – England, Sicily, and Hungary – through the lens of the doctrine of inalienability, whereby territories under the jurisdiction of the Holy See could not be alienated or governed without papal approval. Grounded in the decretal Intellecto issued by Pope Honorius III in 1225, the article explores how the Church employed coronation oaths imbued with provisions of canon law and feudal principles to assert its supremacy over monarchs. At the core of the analysis lies the case of the Hungarian kingdom, where King Andrew II’s violation of his coronation oath through the concessions of the Golden Bull (1222) prompted papal intervention to safeguard the integrity of the iura regalia. Comparatively, the transformation of England into a papal fief (1213) under Innocent III and the subordination of Sicily through tense relations with Frederick II, followed by the establishment of the Angevin dynasty, illustrate the coherent application of this doctrine. The theocratic period spanning the pontificates of Innocent III, Honorius III, and Gregory IX highlights the adaptation of feudal concepts (beneficium propter officium transformed into officium propter beneficium) to redefine kingship as a ministry subordinate to the Church. The decretal Intellecto does not innovate but reinforces a pre-existing papal strategy, providing a significant precedent for vassalage relationships in medieval Europe and demonstrating the Roman Church’s efficacy in maintaining control over Christianitas.
Keywords: Roman Church; Kingdom of Hungary; Inalienability; Hierocracy; Decretal Intellecto; Oath, Vassalage;

Abstract: The text of the Life of Rabban Joseph Busnaya is an indispensable historical source for understanding the political, social and religious realities of the 9th-10th centuries in the northern part of Iraq, known as Jazira in Muslim historiography or, today, as the separatist region of Kurdistan. In John bar Kaldun’s relatively long text, we find historical information on the last period of Abbasid rulers in Baghdad, the crisis triggered by the clashes between the Buid rulers in the capital and the Hamdanite tribes in the Mosul region, which gradually gained greater political and fiscal independence. The conflict between Emir Adud al-Dawla and Abu Taglib, the ruler of Mosul, was a critical moment in this period. The aftermath of this confrontation had a consistent impact on the life of religious minorities in the region, and is recorded in the source we study. At the same time, we are introduced to the specific ecclesiastical context of the Syro-Eastern Church, already isolated for more than five centuries from the Christians of the West (Byzantium and Europe), but with a strong tradition of its own, which gives it a unique specificity, charming in its richness and depth.
Keywords: 10th Century Irak; Abbasid Dynasty; oriental historiography; syriac hagiography; Church of the East; monasticism; John bar Kaldun; Joseph Bousnaya;

Abstract: The article offers a renewed analysis of the customs regime of Moldavia between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, with particular attention to the units of measurement used to calculate customs duties and to the customs tariffs mentioned in the trade privileges. After addressing the institutional legacy left by the Mongol domination on the Moldavian customs system, the study reassesses the customs tariffs included in the commercial privileges granted by the Moldavian voivodes to the merchants of Lwów in the fifteenth century. The hryvnia mentioned in these tariffs does not correspond to the Polish hryvnia, as previously assumed, but constitutes a unit of measurement specific to the Moldavian monetary system. Simultaneously, the study seeks to estimate the value of the silver ruble used as a reference unit for calculating customs duties in Moldavian sources. The customs revenues generated by the transit of goods through Moldavia in the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries are analyzed in light of the transformations in the country’s customs network. The gradual integration of the territory east of the Carpathians into the periphery of the Ottoman economic system appears to have led to a gradual decline in customs income. From the late fifteenth century and throughout the sixteenth century, the voivodes gradually increased customs tariffs, a development driven by the growing financial needs of the Moldavian authorities. Finally, the study considers the place of customs revenues within the broader spectrum of public income collected by the Moldavian voivodes. Examining Moldavia’s customs regime provides a better understanding of the changing relationship between direct and indirect taxation in Moldavian fiscal history.
Keywords: Moldavia; public revenues; customs tariffs; customs duties; trade; customs taxation; Middle Ages;

Abstract: The year 1859 is a significant year in the history of the Romanians because, by the double election of 5 and 24 January 1859, of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as ruler of Wallachia and Moldavia, the desire to unite the Romanians from the two Principalities is fulfilled. The new ruler has a rather difficult mission because, on the one hand, externally, he must fight for the legalization of the double election and the recognition of the Union, and internally, the Prince had to fulfill the requirements of the Paris Convention of August 7, 1858, and the union full politically and administratively. England, being one of the guarantor powers of the Principalities, played an important role in the peaceful and legal political-administrative Union. English Consuls in the Principalities communicate constantly with both the Foreign Office and Henry Bulwer, the English Ambassador in Constantinople. The British diplomatic documents both prove their attempts to calm the tensions accumulated in the Principalities and the pressure exerted on the Ottoman Empire to speed up the settlement of the Principality issue.
Keywords: England; Romanian Principalities; Alexandru Ioan Cuza; Union; diplomatic documents;

Abstract: The theme of this research refers to the evolution of a Sephardic Community institution, Hevra Kedosha șel Levaya veRehita (Sacred Broderhood of Funeral Ceremonies and Ritual Inhumation) in Bucharest in a complex period of the history of Jews in Romania, characterized by the abolition of the central institution Hahambasia in 1834, under the influence of the Organic Regulations, massive immigration from neighboring territories, the placement of religion and rabbinical authority in the background, as a result of the Haskala (Jewish enlightenment) and the business opportunities offered by the incipient capitalist economy, the polarization of the Jewish society between differend groups: Sephardi-Askenazi, foreign subjects – subjects of the Romanian state/Ottoman Empire (sudiți-raia-pământeni), conservativesreformists, elites-masses. On a extra community level, the restrictive measures of the era also contributed to disorganization.
For these purposes, Jewish institutions, community or private, acted in concert, according to Jewish norms. Among them, the Sephardic funeral institution, Hevra Kedoșa șel Levaya veRehita, the subject of this research, stands out for its longevity, specific social influence (integration into the social economy to the balance of the charity-contributive), relationship of the Sephardic social life, documented in the Archives of the Historical Centre of the Jewish Communiy of Romania. The Sephardic institution went trough successive reforms between 1811–1936, in order to maintain the central community role to secure its own members and even to ensure the survival of Sephardic life, as a model of peaceful integration, marked by mutual pragmatism in Romanian society.
Keywords: Havra Kadisha of Levaya and Rehita; Sephardic Jew; mitzvah (good action); Solomon Halfon; Paquid (honorary president); parnasim (counselors);

Abstract: In the second half of the 19th century, the city of Focșani experienced a significant cultural transformation within the context of the consolidation of the modern Romanian state. One of the main factors behind this development was the establishment and growth of the town’s first secondary school, which later became „Unirea” High School, an institution which had teachers who were active in the local cultural life. The school’s teachers contributed to the laicization and modernization of the city by organizing conferences, educational projects and by helping establish the local Athenaeum. Other institutions and societies, such as the Civil-Military Club, the Putna Students’ Circle, and the local branch of the Cultural League, also supported this process. At the same time, the first local public library was established and also musical ensembles were founded, such as the „10th Putna Regiment” Orchestra and „Doina Vrancei”. During the laicization of culture, nationalist discourses and themes promoting the national unity of Romanians also began to emerge. This was a natural consequence of the historical context, as the Romanian state was recently independent, and asserting its place on the map of Europe. The contribution of ethnic minorities, especially Armenians and Jews, was important in the founding of schools and their participation in the local cultural life. A notable event was the organization of the First Zionist Congress in Romania, held in Focșani in 1881. Meanwhile, the Lupescu Theater hosted cultural events, but due to a lack of maintenance, it lost its importance. The opening of the „Major Gheorghe Pastia” Theater in 1913, funded by the philanthropist of the same name, created a new center for Focșani’s cultural life. Thus, between 1880 and 1916, Focșani witnessed an intensification of its cultural life, evolving towards a more secular, educational, and national character. This marked both a new stage in the city’s evolution and a key aspect of its modernization. During this process, the city’s cultural epicenter shifted from „Unirea” High School to the „Major Gheorghe Pastia” Theater, when a symbolic moment was the high school’s jubilee celebration in 1916, which was held in the new theater. This symbolic transfer marked a new phase in the dynamics of local culture.
Keywords: Focșani; Education; Culture; „Unirea” Lyceum; Theater „Gheorghe Pastia”; Cultural League; Society „Filarmonica”; Ethnical minorities;

Abstract: Botoșani, a relatively old city in northern Moldova, has experienced an atypical evolution compared to other cities in the country. From its flourishing as an important commercial and craft center, reaching the fourth largest city in the country in the mid-19th century, unlike other cities that prospered, Botoșani entered a phase of decline. This stagnation, which can be considered a „geographical pathology”, is explained by a series of historical and economic factors. The city was founded as a market at a crossroads of trade routes, between the high plateau and the low plain of Moldova. Trade was its main function, and Armenians and Jews played an important role in the economic life of the city, along with the local population. The economic decline was caused by the city’s isolation from the main railway network and the decline of local industry. Another important factor was the decline in trade, caused by changing trade routes and the lack of development of transport infrastructure. In conclusion, the decline of the city of Botoșani is a complex example of a change in the economic role and importance of a city, caused by factors such as isolation from the main communication routes and the railway network, the decline of local industry and changes in the economic structure of the region.
Keywords: demography; decline; economy; trade; communication routes; Botosani;

Abstract: In the second half of the 19th century, in Transylvania, the relationship between the Church and the school was essential for the preservation of the Romanian national identity. Confessional education, especially Greek Catholic, was organized and supported by local communities and church authorities, especially in former border areas such as Năsăud. The Austro-Hungarian state gradually limited the Church’s autonomy over education, through laws that imposed control over curricula, language of instruction, and salaries. Correspondence between the Border Gymnasium in Năsăud and the Greek Catholic Diocese of Gherla reflects the Church’s involvement in the appointment of teachers, approval of textbooks, material support of schools, and supervision of students. After 1893, the direct influence of the Diocese in school life decreased, along with the increase in state control.
Keywords: education; denominational schools; Church; correspondence; Nasaud; Transylvania;

Abstract: This study draws on some of the doctoral research findings concerning the history of the „Franz Joseph” Royal Hungarian University of Sciences in Cluj during World War I.
As is known, the war that started on July 28, 1914, was triggered by the assassinations in Sarajevo. It was a long and complex war of the kind that had never been seen before, affecting all areas of society, including education. The University of Cluj was no exception in feeling its impact.
The main objective of this study is to analyze how the war years press reflected the higher education institution of Cluj. To better understand this phenomenon, we will examine aspects such as the rectors’ announcements addressed to the students, the scientific activity of the teaching staff, the events that made the university and its professors the subjects of journalistic interest, and the university’s relationship with other educational institutions during the war years. At the same time, we will focus on the tensions within the teaching staff, as mentioned in the newspapers, the so-called „fake news”, and the way in which some university employees and students were portrayed in the press. The second objective is to deepen knowledge and understanding of the history of the „Franz Joseph” Royal Hungarian University of Sciences in Cluj, within the context of World War I. The study relies on primary sources, partially preserved in the county archives of Cluj and Mureș, complemented by academic works and periodicals.
Keywords: World War I; university history; war press; fake news; war propaganda;

Abstract: In 1929, the University of Cluj received a substantial donation from the writer and philantropist Virgil Cioflec. The donation consisted of a valuable art collection that was continuously enriched during the interwar period, becoming a unique collection within the landscape of Romanian universities. The motivation behind this donation was Virgil Cioflec’s desire to contribute to the cultivation of good taste and artistic education among university students, as well as to foster dialogue between ethnic groups in the highly dynamic political context of interwar Romania. Thus, the „King Ferdinand I” University of Cluj hosted its first art gallery, which operated as a foundation named after its patron. In its early days, the collection comprised over seventy paintings and drawings, along with two busts, most of them by renowned Romanian artists such as Nicolae Grigorescu and Ștefan Luchian. It was housed within the Institute of Classical Studies, in three rooms, two of which were named after the celebrated painters Nicolae Grigorescu and Ștefan Luchian. The collection continued to grow each year, so that by 1948 it numbered 325 works.
The purpose of this study is to trace the history of this university collection throughout the interwar period, as one of the most important donations that enriched the academic heritage of Cluj, while also contributing to the city’s cultural and artistic development.
Keywords: Virgil Cioflec, art collection; donation; interwar period; University of Cluj;

Abstract: A comparative analysis of the authoritarian regimes established by King Carol II in Romania and General Ioannis Metaxas in Greece highlights a series of similarities and particularities that place them in a common context of interwar Europe, dominated by political instability, the rise of extremist ideologies, and the fear of communism. Both regimes were justified by their leaders through the necessity of reestablishing internal order and combating ideological dangers, and were supported by state institutions, such as the army, the monarchy, or youth organizations. In the warlike context that increasingly threatened both states, both Carol II and Ioannis Metaxas used models from the Italic or German space regarding youth organization. „The Guard of the Country” (Straja Țării) educated youth in the spirit of national ideas, thus distancing young people from the influences of the extremist Legionary movement, while the „National Youth Organization” used nationalist principles to distance Greek youth from a potential alignment with communist ideology. In Romania, the members of the youth organization were guided by the motto „faith and work for the country and the king”. They pledged allegiance to the king, who was also the supreme commander of this organization. In Greece, the National Youth Organization initially aimed to provide the spiritual and physical education of Greek youth in accordance with the moral, social, political, and military principles of the 4th of August Regime. The homeland, religion, family, the king (especially in the early years of the regime), and the nation-state formed the foundation of all actions undertaken by Greek youth.
These two regimes reflect the authoritarian tendencies of the 1930s in Southeast Europe, being expressions of democratic vulnerability, the instrumentalization of youth, and a society in search of order through autocratic means. This study emphasizes the importance of the press and education as vehicles of propaganda, as well as the decisive role of the international context in the evolution and collapse of these regimes.
Keywords: Romania; Greece; The Guard of the Country; National Youth Organization; Interwar Period;

Abstract: During the communist regime, the neo-Protestant press, like any publication printed in that era, was used as a platform for the communist regime. One such case was the death of Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (March 5, 1953), when, in parallel to religious and doctrinal articles, space was allocated to homage articles to the deceased, using epithets that were more and more laudatory.
The present article is an analysis of the three neo-Protestant periodicals in existence at the time, and how Stalin’s death was reflected in their pages, in order to demonstrate the politicization of the church press at the time.
Keywords: neo-Protestant press (Evangelical Press); communist regime; baptist; brethren; Adventist; Joseph V. Stalin;

Abstract: The paper analyzes the complex context of relations between Communist Romania and the Vatican during the 1960s and 1970s, focusing on Nicolae Ceaușescu’s visit to the Vatican in May 1973. After the conclusion of the Second Vatican Council (1965), the Catholic Church promoted ecumenical dialogue and sought rapprochement with the communist states of Eastern Europe. Within this framework, Romania began tentative diplomatic discussions with the Holy See, aiming to clarify the legal status of the Roman Catholic Church and to potentially reinstate the outlawed GreekCatholic Church, banned in 1948.
The first contacts were established between representatives of the Romanian government and papal envoys (Cornel Burtică, Ion Gheorghe Maurer, Corneliu Mănescu). The Vatican expressed its desire to re-establish diplomatic relations and address the situation of Greek Catholics. In the following years, several papal emissaries – among them Cardinal Luigi Poggi and John Bukovsky – visited Romania and negotiated with the Department for Religious Affairs. However, the communist authorities persistently rejected the Vatican’s requests, claiming that recognizing the Greek-Catholic Church would undermine national unity.
Relations were further complicated by the 1972 visit of a Romanian Orthodox Church delegation to Rome, led by Father Dumitru Stăniloae. Although cordial, the meeting brought no concrete results.
The culmination of these developments was Nicolae Ceaușescu’s official visit to Italy (May 21 26, 1973), which concluded with a solemn meeting with Pope Paul VI at the Vatican.
Keywords: Vatican; Second Vatican Council; Nicolae Ceaușescu;
Diplomacy;

Abstract: The World Council of Churches was founded in 1948, when the first General Assembly of this body took place in Amsterdam. Various Autocephalous Orthodox Churches participated in the founding of the World Council of Churches, of which I mention that the Ecumenical Patriarchate had a central role, this also due to the fact that the first idea of founding such a body was also the Ecumenical Patriarchate’s in
1920.
Thus, since its founding and until 2020, the World Council of Churches has over 300 members Churches, among which most of them mention the Autocephalous Orthodox Churches (Ecumenical Patriarchate, Patriarchate of Antioch, Russian Patriarchate, Romanian Patriarchate etc.), Eastern Orthodox Churches (Armenian Church, Coptic Church, Ethiopian Church), Anglican Church or various Protestant Churches and other Churches Neo-Protestants.
In the space of the World Council of Churches, all these Churches dialogue with a view to mutual knowledge. From the first General Assembly of the World Council of Churches in Amsterdam in 1948 until 2013 there have been ten General Assemblies of the World Council of Churches as follows: 1948 – Amsterdam, 1954 – Evanston, 1961 – New Delhi, 1968 – Uppsala, 1975 – Nairobi, 1983 – Vancouver, 1991 – Canberra, 1998 – Harare, 2006 – Porto Alegre, 2013 – Busan.
Thus, since 1948, the World Council of Churches has had seven General Secretaries, as follows: Willem A. Visser’t Hooft (1948–1966), Eugene Carson Blake (1966–1972), Philip A. Potter (1972–1984), Emilio Castro (1985–1992), Konrad Raiser (1993–2003), Samuel Kobia (2004–2009), Olav Fykse Tveit (2010–2020).
Keywords: Council of Churches; Ecumenical Partiarchate; Armenian Church; Coptic Church; Ethiopian Church;

Abstract: This article analyzes Tsarist Russia’s true interests in Moldavia and Wallachia between 1812 and 1829, arguing that Russia’s stated mission of protecting Christians in the Ottoman Empire served mainly as a political pretext for territorial expansion. Through successive treaties – Küçük Kaynarca, Iași, Bucharest, Akkerman, and Adrianople – Russia gradually increased its influence, gaining rights to intervene in local governance, appoint rulers, and control administration in the Principalities. Russian occupation brought heavy burdens: forced requisitions, financial exploitation, corruption, and abuses committed by the army, leading to widespread poverty and social disintegration. Despite claiming to modernize the region, Russia’s reforms – especially the Organic Regulations – were designed to secure political dominance and prepare the Principalities for possible annexation. The article concludes that Russia’s involvement was driven by strategic goals in the Balkans and control of the Danube, rather than genuine concern for Orthodox populations.
Keywords: Tsarist Russia; the Ottoman Empire; Eastern Question; treaties; conventions;